Ahura

The Formation of the Ming Painting Academy

Ming Studies, spring 1990

Hou-mei Sung

Questions concerning the Ming Painting Academy, its birth, and subsequent growth, have long troubled researchers. Vanderstappen was the first to study this issue in 1956. He concluded that there was no painting academy in the Ming court until the seventeenth century. This conclusion stems in part from his search for a "painting academy" based on the Sung definition. Indeed, the Ming Painting Academy had neither the same organization nor the testing and grading system of the Sung dynasty, especially when compared with the prosperous Academy of Hui-tsung (徽宗) 's reign. Yet Vanderstappen did not distinguish the scholar painters, such as Wang Fu (王紱) and Hsia Ch'ang (夏昶), from the court painters, such as Pien Wen-chin (邊文進), Hsieh Huan (謝環), and Kuo Ch'un (郭純). Both groups were considered as court painters. In fact, the two groups of painters had completely different qualifications and duties. The titles received by men of these two groups were also of quite a different nature, as discussed in another article. Suzuki Kei further clarified some aspects of this issue by confirming the existence of the Ming Painting Academy in the Jen-chih-tien (仁智殿 Hall of Benevolence and Wisdom) sometime after the Hsuan-te (宣德) era. He also pointed out the significant roles of the Wen-ssu-yuan (文思院 Crafts Institute) and Yü-yung-chien (武英殿 Directorate for Imperial Accouterments) in the Ming Painting Academy. Acknowledging a great debt to these scholars, this author would like to continue the discussion of the formation of the Ming Painting Academy by focusing on the early Ming period from the Hung-wu (洪武 1368-1398) to the Hsuan-te (1425-1434) era.

This author believes that the evolution of the Ming Painting Academy was closely tied to the major political and institutional changes of the early Ming period: Especially important are the reorganization of the central government in the Hung-wu and Yung-lo (永樂 1403-1424) eras, and the shift of political power from the Grand Secretaries to the eunuchs from the Yung-lo to the Hsuan-te eras. The Ming Painting Academy was not established until the Hsüan-te era. Yet its basic structure can be traced to the Yung-lo era through the two major agencies where most court painters served; they are the Ying-shan-so (營繕所 Work Project Office) and the Wen-ssu-yüan. Both are related to Sung or Yuan institutions for artisan painters. The Ming Painting Academy's close affiliation with the artisan institutions controlled by eunuchs clearly lowered the court painters' status and eventually led to their alienation from the scholar painters.

The Hung-wu Reign

We lack information on activities of the Hung-wu era painters. However, the negative attitude of Emperor Hung-wu toward art in general and his dramatic restructuring of the government by abolishing the super-structure of the Chung-shu-sheng (中書省 Secretariat) in 1380 had far-reaching effects on the painters' status in court. Coming from the humble peasant class, the Hung-wu emperor considered painting superfluous. Therefore, most painters were ordered to paint either portraits or wall decorations. The Hung-wu emperor is also known for persecuting many artists who failed to implement his whims. For instance, Sheng Chu (盛著), Chou Wei (周位), and Chao Yuan (趙原) all lost their lives.

Since the new government was still recovering from the turmoil of the late Yuan and was busy with reconstruction, it is understandable that many offices of the Hung-wu era were marked by a lack of organization and systematization. There is apparently no painting academy during this period. The demands for painters to decorate the new palaces or halls and to make portraits were met by summoning noted painters to the court and giving them official titles and imperial commissions. Some of them were employed in the court, such as Sheng Chu, Chou Wei, Chao Yuan, and Shen Hsi-yüan (沈希遠). Some were only temporarily at court. These artists, such as Hsiang Li (相禮) and Sun Wen-tsung (孫文宗), were rewarded and sent home after their commissions expired. This practice is similar to that of the Yuan dynasty.

Information concerning the official status of the Hung-wu artists is very scarce. However, a few observations can be made regarding the duties or titles of the court painters. First, since all the court painters restricted their duties to practical tasks, they were not so different from the artisans (hua-kung 畫工). This situation not only narrowed their creative ability, but also lowered their status. Their status was further diminished by the lack of an organization and grading system. The only Hung-wu court painter known to have actually received the title of Tai-chao (待詔 Painter-in-attendance) is Ch'en Yuan (陳遠). As recorded in MING-HUA-LU (明畫錄), Ch'en received the title of Wen-yüan-ko tai-chao (文淵閣待詔) after he made the imperial portrait of the Hung-wu emperor. Other sources indicate that the portrait was made in 1370, the same year Sun Wen-tsung was also summoned to the court to paint the imperial portrait. This indicates that in the beginning of the Hung-wu reign, before the painting academy was established, the court followed the traditional custom of offering the title of Tai-chao to the court painters. Portrait painters, known traditionally as Hsieh-mao tai-chao (寫貌待詔), were obviously in great demand at the beginning of the new dynasty.

Another title associated with the court painter of the Hung-wu era is Chung-shu she-jen (中書舍人 Secretariat Drafter). This title, according to MING-HUA-LU, was offered to Shen Hsi-yüan after he pleased the Hung-wu emperor with an imperial portrait. It is clearly an unconventional title for court painters. In an earlier article, this author assumed that this title was the Wu-ying-tien chung-shu she-jen mentioned by Sun Ch'eng-tse (孫承澤 1592-1676) in his CH'UN-MING MENG-YÜ-LU (春明夢餘錄). According to Sun, this title is offered to selected painters who worked in the Wu-ying-tien. Sun also stated that in the Ming dynasty the Chung-shu she-jen of Wen-hua-tien was like the Shu-hsueh (Calligraphy School) of the Sung dynasty, and the Tai-chao of the Wu-ying-tien was like the Sung dynasty Hua-hsüeh (畫學 School of Painting) except for its lack of the Sung testing and grading system. Yet Sun's statement was very brief and general and did not specify to which period this information referred. After further investigation, this author is convinced that Sun's statement was only applicable to the period after the Ch'eng-hua (成化) era (1465-1487). This is supported by information in Shen Te-fu (沈德符)'s WAN-LI YEH-HUO-PIEN (萬曆野獲編).

According to Shen, the Chung-shu she-jen of Wu-ying-tien was first established in 1465 when a group of artisans from Wen- ssu-yuan were given this title. The Chung-shu she-jen of Wen- hua-tien was established by Emperor Hsüan-tsung but was not offered to painters until the Ch'eng-hua era.

Therefore, Shen Hsi-yüan's title, Chung-shu she-jen, could not be the Wu-ying-tien chung-shu mentioned by Sun Ch'eng-tse. On the other hand, there is evidence of a close relationship between the Chung-shu (Secretariat) of the early Hung-wu era and painters. For example, according to WU-SHENG SHIH-SHIH (無聲詩史), Chao Yuan and many other painters were summoned to the Chung- shu to paint ancient sages. The matter is further complicated by the lack of information on the dates and life of Shen Hsi-yuan. The date Shen received such a title is crucial because after 1380 the Chung-shu sheng (Central Secretariat) was abolished and reduced to a much smaller Chung-shu-k'o (中書科). Therefore, the meaning of the title Chung-shu she-jen was quite different after the reorganization of the central government. The other Hung-wu painter who received this title is Chu Fei (朱芾). However, Chu did not receive the title as a painter because during the early Hung-wu era prior to his promotion to Chung- shu she-jen in 1376 he was serving as a Han-lin pien-hsiu (翰林編修 Compiler in the Han-lin Academy). In addition, it was clearly stated that Chu was qualified to serve under this title by virtue of his knowledge of the classics and of his calligraphy. The fact that Chu's title, received before 1380, was even higher than a Han-lin pien-hsiu is true only before 1380. is also important to distinguish between the Chung-shu she-jen of the Hung-wu era and the same title offered to the scholar painters who served as calligraphers in the Wen-yüan-ko (文淵閣 Hall of Literary Profundity) after the Yung-lo era.

As mentioned earlier, information concerning these Hung-wu titles is insufficient to conduct any conclusive study. Yet it should be noted that during the Hung-wu era painters were offered the title Tai-chao as well as Chung-shu she-jen. This author believes that the political change of 1380 must have led to major changes in the Hung-wu painters' status at court. Based on the little information available, this author suspects that before 1380 the painters at court were probably still under the administration of the Chung-shu-sheng and worked in the Wen-yüan-ko.